Survey of Visual and Predictive Aspects of Batting and Eye Care Utilization in Baseball Players
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Abstract
Recent laboratory studies suggest that baseball batters use pre-pitch and post-pitch cues in batting and that high-level batters have excellent visual acuity. This study aimed to survey baseball batters on eye and head tracking and fixation behaviors, whether players received eye examinations during their playing careers, and on players’ recollections of coaching advice. An online survey was sent to potential respondents. Fifty-nine current or former baseball players who participated at the college level (54) or above (5) completed all (58) or most of the survey. Most were Division 3 college players. Survey responses suggested that pre-pitch and post-pitch cues were used by batters and that eye and head-tracking behaviors were similar to those in laboratory studies. Survey answers on batters’ behaviors largely matched answers on coaching advice. Most respondents had received an eye examination while playing, but most had not discussed vision
therapy.
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References
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2. Gray R. Behavior of college baseball players in a virtual batting task. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2002;28(5):1131–48. http://doi.org/10.1037//0096-1523.28.5.1131
3. Paull G, Glencross D. Expert perception and decision making in baseball. Int J Sport Psychol. 1997;28(1):35–56.
4. Müller S, Fadde PJ, Harbaugh AG. Adaptability of expert visual anticipation in baseball batting. J Sports Sci. 2017;35(17):1682–1690. http://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1230225
5. Müller S, Abernethy B. Expert anticipatory skill in striking sports: a review and a model. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2012;83(2):175–87. http://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2012.10599848
6. Gray R, Cañal-Bruland R. Integrating visual trajectory and probabilistic information in baseball batting. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2018;36:123–31. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.02.009
7. Shank MD, Haywood K. Eye movements while viewing a baseball pitch. Percept Mot Skills. 1987; 64(3):1191–97. http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1987.64.3c.1191
8. Kato T, Fukuda T. Visual search strategies of baseball batters: eye movements during the preparatory phase of batting. Percept Mot Skills. 2002; 94(2):380–6. http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2002.94.2.380
9. Takeuchi T, Inomata K. Visual search strategies and decision making in baseball batting. Percept Mot Skills. 2009;108(3):971–80. http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.108.3.971-980
10. Bahill AT, LaRitz T. Why can’t batters keep their eyes on the ball. Am Sci. 1984;72(3): 249–253.
11. Fogt NF, Zimmerman AB. A method to monitor eye and head tracking movements in college baseball players. Optom Vis Sci. 2014;91(2):200–11. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000000148
12. Fogt N, Persson TW. A pilot study of horizontal head and eye rotations in baseball batting. Optom Vis Sci. 2017;94(8):789–96. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001100
13. Nakamoto H, Fukuhara K, Mann D. Keep your “head” on the ball: The relationship between gaze behavior and temporal error in baseball batting in a virtual environment [abstract]. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2018;40 Suppl:S59–S60.
14. Higuchi T, Nagami T, Nakata H, Kanosue K. Head-eye movement of collegiate baseball batters during fastball hitting. PLoS One. 2018;13(7):e0200443. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200443
15. Fogt N, Persson TW. Vertical head and eye movements in baseball batting. Optom Vis Perform. 2020;8(3):129–34.
16. Kishita Y, Ueda H, Kashino M. Eye and head movements of elite baseball players in real bat-ting. Front Sports Act Living. 2020;2:3. http://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2020.00003
17. Kishita Y, Ueda H, Kashino M. Temporally coupled coordination of eye and body movements in baseball batting for a wide range of ball speeds. Front Sports Act Living. 2020;2:64. http://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2020.00064
18. Toole AJ, Fogt N. Review: Head and eye movements and gaze tracking in baseball batting. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):750–8. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001721
19. Laby DM, Rosenbaum AL, Kirschen DG, Davidson JL, Rosenbaum LJ, Strasser C, et al. The visual function of professional baseball players. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122(4):476–85.
http://doi.org/10.1016/s00029394(14)72106-3
20. Laby DM, Kirschen DG, Govindarajulu U, DeLand P. The Effect of Visual Function on the Batting Performance of Professional Baseball Players. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):16847. http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52546-2
21. Kirschen DG, Laby DM. The uses of vision data in selecting players for the Major League Baseball draft. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):809–14. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001736
22. Farrow D, Abernethy B. Do expertise and the degree of perception-action coupling affect natural anticipatory performance? Perception. 2003;32(9):1127–39. http://doi.org/10.1068/p3323
23. Mann DL, Abernethy B, Farrow D. Action specificity increases anticipatory performance and the expert advantage in natural interceptive tasks. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2010;135(1):17–23. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.04.006
24. Fadde PJ. Interactive video training of perceptual decision-making in the sport of baseball. Tech Inst Cogn Learn. 2006;4:237–56.
25. Clark JF, Ellis JK, Bench J, Khoury J, Graman P. High-performance vision training improves bat-ting statistics for University of Cincinnati baseball players. PLoS One. 2012;7(1):e29109. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029109
26. Deveau J, Ozer DJ, Seitz AR. Improved vision and on-field performance in baseball through percep-tual learning. Curr Biol. 2014;24(4):R146–7. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.01.004
27. Belling P, Ward P. Time to start training: A review of cognitive research in sport and bridging the gap from academia to the field. Procedia Manufac. 2015;3:1219–24. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.202
28. Fadde PJ. Instructional design for accelerated macrocognitive expertise in the baseball workplace. Front Psychol. 2016;7:292. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00292
29. Liu S, Ferris LM, Hilbig S, Asamoa E, LaRue JL, Lyon D, et al. Dynamic vision training transfers positively to batting practice performance among collegiate baseball batters. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2020;51:101759. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101759
30. Laby DM, Appelbaum LG. Review: Vision and on-field performance: A critical review of visual assessment and training studies with athletes. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):723–31. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001729
31. Adair RK. The Physics of Baseball. 3rd edition. New York: Harper Collins Publishers: 2002.
32. Gray R. A model of motor inhibition for a complex skill: baseball batting. J Exp Psychol Appl. 2009;15(2):91–105. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0015591
33. Scheaffer RL, Mendenhall W, Ott RL, Gerow KG. Simple random sampling. In: Elementary Survey Sampling. 7th edition. Boston: Brooks/Cole: 2012:75–114.
34. [Internet]. Indianapolis, IN: National Collegiate Athletic Association| Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. [Cited 2022 November 16] Available from: https://www.ncaa.com/
35. Bahill AT, Baldwin DG, Venkateswaran J. Predicting a baseball’s path: A batter watches the pitcher’s motion plus the spin on the ball to calcu-late when and where it will cross the plate. Am Sci. 2005;93(3):218–25.
36. Aksum KM, Magnaguagno L, Bjørndal CT, Jordet G. What do football players look at? An eye-tracking analysis of the visual fixations of players in 11 v 11 elite football match play. Front Psychol. 2020;11:562995. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.562995
37. Klostermann A, Vater C, Kredel R, Hossner EJ. Perception and action in sports. On the function-ality of foveal and peripheral vision. Front Sports Act Living. 2020;1:66. http://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2019.00066
38. Vickers JN. Visual control when aiming at a far target. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1996;22(2):342– 54. http://doi.org/10.1037//0096-1523.22.2.342
39. Vickers JN. Origins and current issues in Quiet Eye research. Curr Iss Sport Sci. 2016;1:1–11. http://doi.org/10.15203/CISS_2016.101
40. Dalton K. The Quiet Eye in sports performance – Is the Quiet Eye the ultimate explanation or only the beginning? Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):732–7. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001728
41. Hyllegard R. The role of the baseball seam pat-tern in pitch recognition. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1991;13(1):80–4.
42. Gray R, Regan DM. Unconfounding the direction of motion in depth, time to passage and rotation rate of an approaching object. Vision Res. 2006;46(15):2388–402. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2006.02.005
43. Osborne K, Rudrud E, Zezoney F. Improved cur-veball hitting through the enhancement of visual cues. J Appl Behav Anal. 1990;23(3):371–7. http://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1990.23-371
44. Do MV, Zimmerman A, Fogt N. Identification of baseball seam orientation at different distances [abstract]. Optom Vis Sci. 2013;90:135096.
45. Hagee D, Fogt N. Baseball seam recognition under temporal constraints. Optom Vis Perform. 2018;6(2):49–56
46. Bahill AT, Karnavas WJ. The perceptual illusion of baseball’s rising fastball and breaking curveball. J Exp Psychol Hum Percep Perf. 1993;19(1):3–14. http://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.19.1.3
47. Matsumiya K, Kaneko H. Estimating time to contact during pursuit eye movements: Comparison between geometric model prediction and human performance. Opt Rev. 2008;15(4):210–7.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10043-008-0033-9
48. Bennett SJ, Baures R, Hecht H, Benguigui N. Eye movements influence estimation of time-to-contact in prediction motion. Exp Brain Res. 2010;206(4):399– 407. http://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-010-2416-y
49. Spering M, Schütz AC, Braun DI, Gegenfurtner KR. Keep your eyes on the ball: Smooth pursuit eye movements enhance prediction of visual motion. J Neurophysiol. 2011;105(4):1756–67.
http://doi. org/10.1152/jn.00344.2010
50. Gray R. Review: Approaches to visual-motor control in baseball batting. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):738–49. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001719
51. Gray R. Comparing cueing and constraints interventions for increasing launch angle in baseball batting. Sport Exerc Perform Psychol. 2018;7(3):318– 32. http://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000131
52. Mann DL, Abernethy B, Farrow D. Visual information underpinning skilled anticipation: The effect of blur on a coupled and uncoupled in situ anticipatory response. Atten Percept Psychophys. 2010;72(5): 1317–26. http://doi.org/10.3758/APP.72.5.1317
53. Reuscher N, Bulson R, Kempgens C, Fischer M, Hayes J. Effect of myopic defocus on base-ball batting performance. Optom Vis Perform. 2021;9(3):156–64.
54. Liu S, Edmunds FR, Burris K, Appelbaum LG. Visual and oculomotor abilities predict profes-sional baseball batting performance. Int J Perform Anal Sport. 2020;20(4):683–700. http://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2020.1777819
55. Mann DL, Ho NY, De Souza NJ, Watson DR, Taylor SJ. Is optimal vision required for the successful execution of an interceptive task? Hum Mov Sci. 2007;26(3):343–56. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2006.12.003
56. Mann DL, Abernethy B, Farrow D. The resilience of natural interceptive actions to refractive blur. Hum Mov Sci. 2010;29(3):386–400. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2010.02.007
57. Weise KK, Galt SJ, Hale MH, Springer DB, Swanson MW. Pre-participation vision screening and comprehensive eye care in national collegiate athletic association athletes. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):764–70. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001738
58. de la Malla C, Rushton SK, Clark K, Smeets JBJ, Brenner E. The predictability of a target’s motion influences gaze, head, and hand movements when trying to intercept it. J Neurophysiol. 2019;121(6):2416–27. http://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00917.2017
2. Gray R. Behavior of college baseball players in a virtual batting task. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2002;28(5):1131–48. http://doi.org/10.1037//0096-1523.28.5.1131
3. Paull G, Glencross D. Expert perception and decision making in baseball. Int J Sport Psychol. 1997;28(1):35–56.
4. Müller S, Fadde PJ, Harbaugh AG. Adaptability of expert visual anticipation in baseball batting. J Sports Sci. 2017;35(17):1682–1690. http://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1230225
5. Müller S, Abernethy B. Expert anticipatory skill in striking sports: a review and a model. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2012;83(2):175–87. http://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2012.10599848
6. Gray R, Cañal-Bruland R. Integrating visual trajectory and probabilistic information in baseball batting. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2018;36:123–31. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.02.009
7. Shank MD, Haywood K. Eye movements while viewing a baseball pitch. Percept Mot Skills. 1987; 64(3):1191–97. http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1987.64.3c.1191
8. Kato T, Fukuda T. Visual search strategies of baseball batters: eye movements during the preparatory phase of batting. Percept Mot Skills. 2002; 94(2):380–6. http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2002.94.2.380
9. Takeuchi T, Inomata K. Visual search strategies and decision making in baseball batting. Percept Mot Skills. 2009;108(3):971–80. http://doi.org/10.2466/pms.108.3.971-980
10. Bahill AT, LaRitz T. Why can’t batters keep their eyes on the ball. Am Sci. 1984;72(3): 249–253.
11. Fogt NF, Zimmerman AB. A method to monitor eye and head tracking movements in college baseball players. Optom Vis Sci. 2014;91(2):200–11. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000000148
12. Fogt N, Persson TW. A pilot study of horizontal head and eye rotations in baseball batting. Optom Vis Sci. 2017;94(8):789–96. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001100
13. Nakamoto H, Fukuhara K, Mann D. Keep your “head” on the ball: The relationship between gaze behavior and temporal error in baseball batting in a virtual environment [abstract]. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2018;40 Suppl:S59–S60.
14. Higuchi T, Nagami T, Nakata H, Kanosue K. Head-eye movement of collegiate baseball batters during fastball hitting. PLoS One. 2018;13(7):e0200443. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200443
15. Fogt N, Persson TW. Vertical head and eye movements in baseball batting. Optom Vis Perform. 2020;8(3):129–34.
16. Kishita Y, Ueda H, Kashino M. Eye and head movements of elite baseball players in real bat-ting. Front Sports Act Living. 2020;2:3. http://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2020.00003
17. Kishita Y, Ueda H, Kashino M. Temporally coupled coordination of eye and body movements in baseball batting for a wide range of ball speeds. Front Sports Act Living. 2020;2:64. http://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2020.00064
18. Toole AJ, Fogt N. Review: Head and eye movements and gaze tracking in baseball batting. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):750–8. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001721
19. Laby DM, Rosenbaum AL, Kirschen DG, Davidson JL, Rosenbaum LJ, Strasser C, et al. The visual function of professional baseball players. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122(4):476–85.
http://doi.org/10.1016/s00029394(14)72106-3
20. Laby DM, Kirschen DG, Govindarajulu U, DeLand P. The Effect of Visual Function on the Batting Performance of Professional Baseball Players. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):16847. http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52546-2
21. Kirschen DG, Laby DM. The uses of vision data in selecting players for the Major League Baseball draft. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):809–14. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001736
22. Farrow D, Abernethy B. Do expertise and the degree of perception-action coupling affect natural anticipatory performance? Perception. 2003;32(9):1127–39. http://doi.org/10.1068/p3323
23. Mann DL, Abernethy B, Farrow D. Action specificity increases anticipatory performance and the expert advantage in natural interceptive tasks. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2010;135(1):17–23. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.04.006
24. Fadde PJ. Interactive video training of perceptual decision-making in the sport of baseball. Tech Inst Cogn Learn. 2006;4:237–56.
25. Clark JF, Ellis JK, Bench J, Khoury J, Graman P. High-performance vision training improves bat-ting statistics for University of Cincinnati baseball players. PLoS One. 2012;7(1):e29109. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029109
26. Deveau J, Ozer DJ, Seitz AR. Improved vision and on-field performance in baseball through percep-tual learning. Curr Biol. 2014;24(4):R146–7. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.01.004
27. Belling P, Ward P. Time to start training: A review of cognitive research in sport and bridging the gap from academia to the field. Procedia Manufac. 2015;3:1219–24. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.202
28. Fadde PJ. Instructional design for accelerated macrocognitive expertise in the baseball workplace. Front Psychol. 2016;7:292. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00292
29. Liu S, Ferris LM, Hilbig S, Asamoa E, LaRue JL, Lyon D, et al. Dynamic vision training transfers positively to batting practice performance among collegiate baseball batters. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2020;51:101759. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101759
30. Laby DM, Appelbaum LG. Review: Vision and on-field performance: A critical review of visual assessment and training studies with athletes. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):723–31. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001729
31. Adair RK. The Physics of Baseball. 3rd edition. New York: Harper Collins Publishers: 2002.
32. Gray R. A model of motor inhibition for a complex skill: baseball batting. J Exp Psychol Appl. 2009;15(2):91–105. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0015591
33. Scheaffer RL, Mendenhall W, Ott RL, Gerow KG. Simple random sampling. In: Elementary Survey Sampling. 7th edition. Boston: Brooks/Cole: 2012:75–114.
34. [Internet]. Indianapolis, IN: National Collegiate Athletic Association| Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. [Cited 2022 November 16] Available from: https://www.ncaa.com/
35. Bahill AT, Baldwin DG, Venkateswaran J. Predicting a baseball’s path: A batter watches the pitcher’s motion plus the spin on the ball to calcu-late when and where it will cross the plate. Am Sci. 2005;93(3):218–25.
36. Aksum KM, Magnaguagno L, Bjørndal CT, Jordet G. What do football players look at? An eye-tracking analysis of the visual fixations of players in 11 v 11 elite football match play. Front Psychol. 2020;11:562995. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.562995
37. Klostermann A, Vater C, Kredel R, Hossner EJ. Perception and action in sports. On the function-ality of foveal and peripheral vision. Front Sports Act Living. 2020;1:66. http://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2019.00066
38. Vickers JN. Visual control when aiming at a far target. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1996;22(2):342– 54. http://doi.org/10.1037//0096-1523.22.2.342
39. Vickers JN. Origins and current issues in Quiet Eye research. Curr Iss Sport Sci. 2016;1:1–11. http://doi.org/10.15203/CISS_2016.101
40. Dalton K. The Quiet Eye in sports performance – Is the Quiet Eye the ultimate explanation or only the beginning? Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):732–7. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001728
41. Hyllegard R. The role of the baseball seam pat-tern in pitch recognition. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1991;13(1):80–4.
42. Gray R, Regan DM. Unconfounding the direction of motion in depth, time to passage and rotation rate of an approaching object. Vision Res. 2006;46(15):2388–402. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2006.02.005
43. Osborne K, Rudrud E, Zezoney F. Improved cur-veball hitting through the enhancement of visual cues. J Appl Behav Anal. 1990;23(3):371–7. http://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1990.23-371
44. Do MV, Zimmerman A, Fogt N. Identification of baseball seam orientation at different distances [abstract]. Optom Vis Sci. 2013;90:135096.
45. Hagee D, Fogt N. Baseball seam recognition under temporal constraints. Optom Vis Perform. 2018;6(2):49–56
46. Bahill AT, Karnavas WJ. The perceptual illusion of baseball’s rising fastball and breaking curveball. J Exp Psychol Hum Percep Perf. 1993;19(1):3–14. http://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.19.1.3
47. Matsumiya K, Kaneko H. Estimating time to contact during pursuit eye movements: Comparison between geometric model prediction and human performance. Opt Rev. 2008;15(4):210–7.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10043-008-0033-9
48. Bennett SJ, Baures R, Hecht H, Benguigui N. Eye movements influence estimation of time-to-contact in prediction motion. Exp Brain Res. 2010;206(4):399– 407. http://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-010-2416-y
49. Spering M, Schütz AC, Braun DI, Gegenfurtner KR. Keep your eyes on the ball: Smooth pursuit eye movements enhance prediction of visual motion. J Neurophysiol. 2011;105(4):1756–67.
http://doi. org/10.1152/jn.00344.2010
50. Gray R. Review: Approaches to visual-motor control in baseball batting. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):738–49. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001719
51. Gray R. Comparing cueing and constraints interventions for increasing launch angle in baseball batting. Sport Exerc Perform Psychol. 2018;7(3):318– 32. http://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000131
52. Mann DL, Abernethy B, Farrow D. Visual information underpinning skilled anticipation: The effect of blur on a coupled and uncoupled in situ anticipatory response. Atten Percept Psychophys. 2010;72(5): 1317–26. http://doi.org/10.3758/APP.72.5.1317
53. Reuscher N, Bulson R, Kempgens C, Fischer M, Hayes J. Effect of myopic defocus on base-ball batting performance. Optom Vis Perform. 2021;9(3):156–64.
54. Liu S, Edmunds FR, Burris K, Appelbaum LG. Visual and oculomotor abilities predict profes-sional baseball batting performance. Int J Perform Anal Sport. 2020;20(4):683–700. http://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2020.1777819
55. Mann DL, Ho NY, De Souza NJ, Watson DR, Taylor SJ. Is optimal vision required for the successful execution of an interceptive task? Hum Mov Sci. 2007;26(3):343–56. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2006.12.003
56. Mann DL, Abernethy B, Farrow D. The resilience of natural interceptive actions to refractive blur. Hum Mov Sci. 2010;29(3):386–400. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2010.02.007
57. Weise KK, Galt SJ, Hale MH, Springer DB, Swanson MW. Pre-participation vision screening and comprehensive eye care in national collegiate athletic association athletes. Optom Vis Sci. 2021;98(7):764–70. http://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0000000000001738
58. de la Malla C, Rushton SK, Clark K, Smeets JBJ, Brenner E. The predictability of a target’s motion influences gaze, head, and hand movements when trying to intercept it. J Neurophysiol. 2019;121(6):2416–27. http://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00917.2017